POST-MAURYAN TRENDS IN INDIAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE

FROM the second century BCE onwards, various rulers
established their control over the vast Mauryan Empire:
the Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north
and parts of central India; the Satvahanas, Ikshavakus,
Abhiras, Vakataks in southern and western India.
Incidentally, the period of the second century BCE also
marked the rise of the main Brahmanical sects such as
the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. There are numerous sites
dating back to the second century BCE in India. Some of
the prominent examples of the finest sculpture are found
at Vidisha, Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Bodhgaya (Bihar),
Jaggayyapeta (Andhra Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Khandagiri-Udaigiri (Odisha), Bhaja near Pune and Pavani
near Nagpur (Maharashtra).
Bharhut
Bharhut sculptures are tall like the images of Yaksha and
Yakhshini in the Mauryan period, modelling of the
sculptural volume is in low relief maintaining linearity.
Images stick to the picture plane. In the relief panels
depicting narratives, illusion of three-dimensionality is
shown with tilted perspective. Clarity in the narrative is
enhanced by selecting main events. At Bharhut, narrative
panels are shown with fewer characters but as the time
progresses, apart from the main character in the story,
others also start appearing in the picture space. At times
more than one event at one geographical place is clubbed
in the picture space or only a single main event is depicted
in the pictorial space.
Availability of the space is utilised to the maximum by
the sculptors. Folded hands in the narratives as well as
single figures of the Yakhshas and Yakshinis are shown
flat clinging to the chest. But in some cases, especially in
later times, the hands are shown with the natural
projection against the chest. Such examples show how
artisans who were working at a collective level had to
understand the method of carving. Initially, dressing the
surface of stone slabs appears as the main concern. Later
the human body and other forms were sculpted. Due to
shallow carving of the picture surface, projection of hands
and feet was not possible, hence, the folded hands and
awkward position of the feet. There is a general stiffness
in the body and arms. But gradually, such visual
appearance was modified by making images with deep
carvings, pronounced volume and a very naturalistic
representation of human and animal bodies. Sculptures
at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, and Jagayyapetta
are good examples.
Narrative reliefs at Bharhut show how artisans used
the pictorial language very effectively to communicate stories.
In one such narrative, showing Queen Mayadevi’s (mother
of Siddhartha Gautam) dream, a descending elephant is
shown. The queen is shown reclining on the bed whereas
an elephant is shown on the top heading towards the womb
of Queen Mayadevi. On the other hand, the depiction of a
Jataka story is very simple—narrated by clubbing the events
according to the geographical location of the story like the
depiction of Ruru Jataka where the Boddhisattva deer is
rescuing a man on his back. The other event in the same
picture frame depicts the King standing with his army and
about to shoot an arrow at the deer, and the man who was
Jataka panel , Bharhut Queen Maya’s dream, Bharhut
rescued by the deer is also shown along with the king
pointing a finger at the deer. According to the story, the
man promised the deer after his rescue that he would not
disclose his identity to anybody. But when the king makes
a proclamation of reward for disclosing the identity of the
deer, he turns hostile and takes the king to the same jungle
where he had seen the deer. Such Jataka stories became
part of stupa decoration. Interestingly, with the rise in the
construction of stupas in various parts of the country,
regional stylistic variations also began to emerge. One main
characteristic in all the male images of first–second
centuries BCE is the knotted headgear. In many sculptures
it is very consistent. Some of the sculptures found at
Bharhut are displayed in Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Sanchi
The next phase of sculptural development at Sanchi Stupa-1,
Mathura, and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh (Guntur District)
is noteworthy in the stylistic progression. Stupa-1 at Sanchi
has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha or
circumambulatory path. It has four beautifully decorated
toranas depicting various events from the life of the Buddha
and the Jatakas. Figure compositions are in high relief,
filling up the entire space. Depiction of posture gets
naturalistic and there is no stiffness in the body. Heads
have considerable projection in the picture space. Rigidity
in the contours gets reduced and images are given
movement. Narration gets elaborated. Carving techniques
appear more advanced than Bharhut. Symbols continue
to be used representing the Buddha and the Manushi
Buddhas or the past Buddhas (according to the textual
tradition, there are twenty-four Buddhas but only the first
one, Dipankar, and the last six are pictorially represented).
At Sanchi Stupa-1, narratives get more elaborated;
however, the depiction of the dream episode remains very
simple showing the reclining image of the queen and the
elephant at the top. The historical narratives such as the
siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visit to Kapilavastu, visit of
Ashoka to the Ramgrama Stupa are carved with
considerable details. In Mathura, images of this period
bear the same quality but are different in the depiction of
physiognomic details.
Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools
The first century CE onwards, Gandhara (now in Pakistan),
Mathura in northern India and Vengi in Andhra Pradesh
emerged as important centres of art production. Buddha
in the symbolic form got a human form in Mathura and
Gandhara. The sculptural tradition in Gandhara had the
confluence of Bactria, Parthia and the local Gandhara
tradition. The local sculptural tradition at Mathura became
so strong that the tradition spread to other parts of northern
India. The best example in this regard is the stupa sculptures
found at Sanghol in the Punjab. The Buddha image at
Mathura is modelled on the lines of earlier Yaksha images
whereas in Gandhara it has Hellenistic features.
Images of Vaishnava (mainly Vishnu and his various
forms) and Shaiva (mainly the lingas and mukhalingas)
faiths are also found at Mathura but Buddhist images are
found in large numbers. It may be noted that the images
of Vishnu and Shiva are represented by their ayudhas
(weapons). There is boldness in carving the large images,
the volume of the images is projected out of the picture
plane, the faces are round and smiling, heaviness in the
sculptural volume is reduced to relaxed flesh. The garments
of the body are clearly visible and they cover the left
shoulder. Images of the Buddha, Yakshas, Yakshinis,
Shaivite and Vaishnavite deities and portrait statues are
profusely sculpted. In the second century CE, images in
Mathura get sensual, rotundity increases, they become
fleshier. In the third century CE, treatment of sculptural
volume changes by reducing the extreme fleshiness,
movement in the posture is shown by increasing distance
between the two legs as well as by using bents in the body
posture. Softness in the surface continues to get refined.
The trend continues in the fourth century CE but in the
late fourth century CE, the massiveness and fleshiness is
reduced further and the flesh becomes more tightened,
the volume of the drapery also gets reduced and in the
fifth and sixth centuries CE, the drapery is integrated into
the sculptural mass. Transparent quality in the robes of
the Buddha images is evident. In this period, two important
schools of sculptures in northern India are worth noting.
The traditional centre, Mathura, remained the main art
production site whereas Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged
as important centres of art production. Many Buddha
images in Sarnath have plain transparent drapery covering
both shoulders, and the halo around the head has very
little ornamentation whereas the Mathura Buddha images
continue to depict folds of the drapery in the Buddha images
and the halo around the head is profusely decorated. One
can visit museums at Mathura, Sarnath, Varanasi, New
Delhi, Chennai, Amaravati, etc. to study the features of
Early Temples
While construction of stupas continued, Brahmanical
temples and images of gods also started getting
constructed. Often temples were decorated with the images
of gods. Myths mentioned in the Puranas became part of
narrative representation of the Brahmanical religion. Each
temple had a principal image of a god. The shrines of the
temples were of three kinds—(i) sandhara type (without
pradikshinapatha), (ii) nirandhara type (with
pradakshinapatha), and (iii) sarvatobhadra (which can be
accessed from all sides). Some of the important temple
sites of this period are Deogarh in Uttar Pradesh, Eran,
Nachna-Kuthara and Udaygiri near Vidisha in Madhya
Pradesh. These temples are simple structures consisting
of a veranda, a hall and a shrine at the rear. They will be
discussed in detail in the next chapter.
Among the important stupa sites outside the Gangetic
valley is Devnimori in Gujarat. In the subsequent centuries
sculptures had little variations while slender images with
transparent drapery remained a dominant aesthetic
sensibility.
Shiva temple, Nachna-Kuthara, Madhya Pradesh, fifth century CE
Buddhist Monuments of South India
Vengi in Andhra Pradesh has many stupa sites like
Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda,
Goli, etc. Amaravati has a mahachaitya and had many
sculptures which are now preserved in Chennai Museum,
Chatur Mukhlinga,
Nachna- Kuthara (Inset)
Amaravati Site Museum, National Museum, New Delhi and
the British Museum, London. Like the Sanchi Stupa, the
Amaravati Stupa also has pradakshinapatha enclosed
within a vedika on which many narrative sculptures are
depicted. The domical stupa structure is covered with relief
stupa sculptural slabs which is a unique feature. The torana
of the Amaravati Stupa has disappeared over a period of
time. Events from the life of the Buddha and the Jataka
stories are depicted. Though in the Amaravati Stupa there
is evidence of construction activity in the third century
BCE, it was best developed in the first and second centuries
CE. Like Sanchi, the early phase is devoid of Buddha images
but during the later phase, in the second and third
centuries CE, the Buddha images are carved on the drum
slabs and at many other places. Interior space in the
composition is created by different postures of the figures
such as semi-back, back, profile, frontal, semi-frontal,
side, etc.
Sculptural form in this area is characterised by intense
emotions. Figures are slender, have a lot of movement,
bodies are shown with three bents (i.e. tribhanga), and the
sculptural composition is more complex than at Sanchi.
Linearity becomes flexible, dynamic movement breaks the
staticness of form. The idea of creating three-dimensional
space in the relief sculpture is devised by using pronounced
volume, angular bodies and complex overlapping. However,
Carving on outer wall of Stupa, Amaravati Stupa drum slab, Amravati, second
century CE absolute attention has been paid to the clarity of form
despite its size and role in the narrative. Narratives are
profusely depicted which include events from the life of
the Buddha and the Jataka stories. There are a number of
Jataka scenes that have not been completely identified. In
the depiction of the birth event, the queen is shown
reclining on a bed surrounded by female attendants and a
small-sized elephant is carved on the upper frame of the
composition showing the dream of Queen Mayadevi. In
another relief, four events related to the birth of the Buddha
are shown. These represent varied ways of depicting the
narratives.
The animated movement in the figures gets reduced in
the sculptures of Nagarjunkonda and Goli in the third
century CE. Even within the relatively low relief volume
than in the Amaravati sculptures, artists at
Nagarjunkonda and Goli managed to create the effect of
protruding surfaces of the body which is suggestive in
nature and look very integral. Independent Buddha images
are also found at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda and
Guntapalle. Guntapalle is a rock-cut cave site near Eluru.
Small apsidal and circular chaitya halls have been
excavated belonging to the second century BCE. The other
important site where rock-cut stupas have been excavated
is Anakapalle near Vishakhapatanam. In Karnataka,
Sannati is the largest stupa site excavated so far. It also
has a stupa like the one in Amaravati decorated with
sculptural relief.
Panel, Nagarjunkonda Construction of a large number of stupas does not mean
that there were no structured temples or viharas or chaityas.
We do get evidences but no structured chaitya or vihara
survived. Among the important structured viharas, mention
may be made of the Sanchi apsidal chaitya structure, i.e.,
temple 18, which is a simple shrine temple having front
pillars and a hall at the back. Similar structured temples
at Guntapalle are also worth mentioning. Along with the
images of the Buddha, other Buddhist images of
Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, Vajrapani,
Amitabha, and Maitreya Buddha started getting sculpted.
However, with the rise of Vajrayana Buddhism many
Boddhisattva images were added as a part of the personified
representations of certain virtues or qualities as propagated
by the Buddhist religious principles for the welfare of
the masses.
Cave Tradition in Western India
In western India, many Buddhist caves dating back to the
second century BCE onwards have been excavated. Mainly
three architectural types were executed—(i) apsidal vaultroof
chaitya halls (found at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Bhaja); (ii)
apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall (found at Thana-Nadsur);
and (iii) flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular
chamber at the back (found at Kondivite). The front of the
chaitya hall is dominated by the motif of a semi-circular
chaitya arch with an open front which has a wooden facade
and, in some cases, there is no dominating chaitya arch
window such as found at Kondivite. In all the chaitya caves
a stupa at the back is common.
In the first century BCE some modifications were made
to the standard plan of the apsidal vault-roof variety where
the hall becomes rectangular like at Ajanta Cave No. 9
Unfinished chaitya cave, Kanheri Chaitya hall, Karla
with a stone-screen wall as a facade.
It is also found at Bedsa, Nashik,
Karla and Kanheri. Many cave sites
have the standard first type of chaitya
halls in the subsequent period. In
Karla, the biggest rock-cut chaitya
hall was excavated. The cave consists
of an open courtyard with two pillars,
a stone screen wall to protect from
rain, a veranda, a stone-screen wall
as facade, an apsidal vault-roof
chaitya hall with pillars, and a stupa
at the back. Karla chaitya hall is
decorated with human and animal
figures. They are heavy in their
execution, and move in the picture space. Further
elaboration over the Karla chaitya hall plan is observed at
Kanheri Cave No.3. Though the cave’s interior was not
fully finished, it shows how the carving progressed from
time to time. Subsequently, the quadrangular flat-roofed
variety became the most preferred design and is extensively
found at many places.
The viharas are excavated in all the cave sites. The
plan of the viharas consists of a veranda, a hall and cells
around the walls of the hall. Some of the important vihara
caves are Ajanta Cave No. 12, Bedsa Cave No. 11, Nashik
Cave Nos. 3, 10 and 17. Many of the early vihara caves are
carved with interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches
and the vedica designs over the cell doors of the cave.
Facade design in Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10, and 17 became a
distinct achievement. The vihara caves at Nashik were
excavated with front pillars carved
with ghata-base and ghata-capital
with human figures. One such vihara
cave was also excavated at Junnar
which is popularly known as
Ganeshleni because an image of
Ganesha belonging to a later period
was installed in it. Later, a stupa was
added at the back of the hall of the
vihara and it became a chaitya-vihara.
The stupas in the fourth and fifth
centuries CE have Buddha images
attached. Junnar has the largest
cave excavations— more than two
hundred caves around the hills of the
town—whereas Kanheri in Mumbai
Chaitya, Cave No. 12, Bhaja
Nashik Cave No. 3
has a hundred and eight excavated caves. The most
important sites are Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik,
Bhaja, Junnar, Karla, Kanheri. Ajanta, Ellora, and Kanheri
continue to flourish. Earlier it was presumed that because
of the absence of the Buddha image, the caves were
considered belonging to the orthodox faith of Buddhism,
i.e., the Thervadins, but with the discovery of the Konkan
Maurya inscription mentioning the Saka era 322, i.e., 400
CE, it is now satisfactorily proved that the cave activity in
western Deccan was an ongoing process and many caves
had been carved with Buddha images where the image
does not exist any more. It may also be noted that many
caves are converted into modern Hindu shrines and have
become popular worshipping sites.

ARTS OF THE MAURYAN PERIOD

SIXTH century BCE marks the beginning of new
religious and social movements in the Gangetic valley
in the form of Buddhism and Jainism which were part of
the shraman tradition. Both religions became popular as
they opposed the varna and jati systems of the Hindu
religion. Magadha emerged as a powerful kingdom and
consolidated its control over the other regions. By the fourth
century BCE the Mauryas established their power and by
the third century BCE, a large part of India was under
Mauryan control. Ashoka emerged as the most powerful
king of the Mauryan dynasty who patronised the shraman
tradition in the third century BCE. Religious practices had
many dimensions and were not confined to just one
particular mode of worship. Worship of Yakshas and mothergoddesses
were prevalent during that time. So, multiple
forms of worship existed. Nevertheless, Buddhism became
the most popular social and religious movement. Yaksha
worship was very popular before and after the advent of
Buddhism and it was assimilated in Buddhism and Jainism.
Pillars, Sculptures and Rock-cut Architecture
Construction of stupas and viharas as part of monastic
establishments became part of the Buddhist tradition.
However, in this period, apart from stupas and viharas,
stone pillars, rock-cut caves and monumental figure
sculptures were carved at several places. The tradition of
constructing pillars is very old and it may be observed
that erection of pillars was prevalent in the Achamenian
empire as well. But the Mauryan pillars are different from
the Achamenian pillars. The Mauryan pillars are rock-cut
pillars thus displaying the carver’s skills, whereas the
Achamenian pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason.
Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan Empire
with inscriptions engraved on them. The top portion of the
pillar was carved with capital figures like the bull, the
lion, the elephant, etc. All the capital figures are vigorous
Yaksha, Parkham and carved standing on a square or circular abacus. Abacuses
are decorated with stylised lotuses. Some of the existing pillars
with capital figures were found at Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-
Nandangarh, Rampurva, Sankisa and Sarnath.
The Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly
known as the Lion Capital is the finest example of Mauryan
sculptural tradition. It is also our national emblem. It is
carved with considerable care—voluminous roaring lion
figures firmly standing on a circular abacus which is carved
with the figures of a horse, a bull, a lion and an elephant
in vigorous movement, executed with precision, showing
considerable mastery in the sculptural techniques. This
pillar capital symbolising Dhammachakrapravartana (the
first sermon by the Buddha) has become a standard symbol
of this great historical event in the life of the Buddha.
Monumental images of Yaksha, Yakhinis and animals,
pillar columns with capital figures, rock-cut caves belonging
to the third century BCE have been found in different parts
of India. It shows the popularity of Yaksha worship and
how it became part of figure representation in Buddhist
and Jaina religious monuments.
Large statues of Yakshas and Yakhinis are found at many
places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura. These monumental
images are mostly in the standing position. One of the
distinguishing elements in all these images is their polished
surface. The depiction of faces is in full round with pronounced
cheeks and physiognomic detail. One of the finest examples
is a Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna, which is tall and
well-built. It shows sensitivity towards depicting the human
physique. The image has a polished surface.
Terracotta figurines show a very different delineation of
the body as compared to the sculptures. Depiction of a
monumental rock-cut elephant at Dhauli in Orissa shows
modelling in round with linear rhythm. It also has Ashokan
rock-edict. All these examples are remarkable in their
execution of figure representation. The rock-cut cave carved
at Barabar hills near Gaya in Bihar is known as the Lomus
Rishi cave. The facade of the cave is decorated with the
semicircular chaitya arch as the entrance. The elephant
frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya arch shows
considerable movement. The interior hall of this cave is
rectangular with a circular chamber at the back. The
entrance is located on the side wall of the hall. The cave
was patronised by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect. The Lomus
Rishi cave is an isolated example of this period. But many
Buddhist caves of the subsequent periods were excavated
in eastern and western India.
Due to the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, stupas
and viharas were constructed on a large scale. However,
there are also examples of a few Brahmanical gods in the
sculptural representations. It is important to note that the
stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at
Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama,
Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalvina. The textual
tradition also mentions construction of various other stupas
on the relics of the Buddha at several places including
Avanti and Gandhara which are outside the Gangetic valley.
Stupa, vihara and chaitya are part of Buddhist and Jaina
monastic complexes but the largest number belongs to the
Buddhist religion. One of the best examples of the structure
of a stupa in the third century BCE is at Bairat in
Rajasthan. It is a very grand stupa having a circular mound
with a circumambulatory path. The great stupa at Sanchi
(which will be discussed later) was built with bricks during
the time of Ashoka and later it was covered with stone and
many new additions were made.
Subsequently many such stupas were constructed which
shows the popularity of Buddhism. From the second
century BCE onwards, we get many inscriptional evidences
mentioning donors and, at times, their profession. The
pattern of patronage has been a very collective one and
there are very few examples of royal patronage. Patrons
range from lay devotees to gahapatis and kings. Donations
by the guilds are also mentioned at several sites. However,
there are very few inscriptions mentioning the names of
artisans such as Kanha at Pitalkhora and his disciple
Balaka at Kondane caves. Artisans’ categories like stone
carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers, carpenters, etc. are
also mentioned in the inscriptions. The method of working
Elephant, Dhauli Lomus Rishi cave-entrance detail
was collective in nature and at times only a specific portion
of the monument is said to have been patronised by a
particular patron. Traders recorded their donation along
with their place of origin.
In the subsequent century, stupas were elaborately built
with certain additions like the enclosing of the
circumambulatory path with railings and sculptural
decoration. There were numerous stupas constructed earlier
but expansions or new additions were made in the second
century BCE. The stupa consists of a cylindrical drum
and a circular anda with a harmika and chhatra on the
top which remain consistent throughout with minor
variations and changes in shape and size. Apart from the
circumambulatory path, gateways were added. Thus, with
the elaborations in stupa architecture, there was ample
space for the architects and sculptors to plan elaborations
and to carve out images.
During the early phase of Buddhism, Buddha is depicted
symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus throne,
chakra, etc. This indicates either simple worship, or paying
respect, or at times depicts historisisation of life events.
Gradually narrative became a part of the Buddhist
tradition. Thus events from the life of the Buddha, the
Jataka stories, were depicted on the railings and torans of
the stupas. Mainly synoptic narrative, continuous narrative
and episodic narrative are used in the pictorial tradition.
While events from the life of the Buddha became an
important theme in all the Buddhist monuments, the Jataka
stories also became equally important for sculptural
decorations. The main events associated with the Buddha’s
life which were frequently depicted were events related to
the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, dhammachakrapravartana,
and mahaparinibbana (death). Among the
Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta
Jataka, Vidurpundita Jataka, Ruru Jataka, Sibi Jataka,
Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.

ARTS OF THE INDUS VALLEY

THE arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation emerged during
the second half of the third millennium BCE. The forms
of art found from various sites of the civilisation include
sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewellery, terracotta figures,
etc. The artists of that time surely had fine artistic
sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Their delineation of
human and animal figures was highly realistic in nature,
since the anatomical details included in them was unique,
and, in the case of terracotta art, the modelling of animal
figures was done in an extremely careful manner.
The two major sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation,
along the Indus river—the cities of Harappa in the north
and Mohenjodaro in the south—showcase one of earliest
examples of civic planning. Other markers were houses,
markets, storage facilities, offices, public baths, etc.,
arranged in a grid-like pattern. There was also a highly
developed drainage system. While Harappa and
Mohenjodaro are situated in Pakistan, the important sites
excavated in India are Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat,
Rakhigarhi in Haryana, Ropar in the Punjab,
Kalibangan and Balathal in Rajasthan, etc.
Statues whether in stone, bronze or terracotta
found in Harappan sites are not abundant, but refined.
Stone Statues
The stone statuaries found at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro are excellent examples of handling threedimensional
volumes. In stone are two male figures—
one is a torso in red sandstone and the other is a
bust of a bearded man in steatite—which are
extensively discussed.
The figure of the bearded man interpreted as a
priest, is draped in a shawl coming under the right
arm and covering the left shoulder. This shawl is
decorated with trefoil patterns. The eyes are a little
elongated, and half-closed as in meditative
concentration. The nose is well formed and of medium
size; the mouth is of average size with close-cut moustache
and a short beard and whiskers; the ears resemble double
shells with a hole in the middle. The hair is parted in the
middle, and a plain woven fillet is passed round the head.
An armlet is worn on the right hand and holes around the
neck suggest a necklace.
Bronze Casting
The art of bronze-casting was practised on a wide scale by
the Harappans. Their bronze statues were made using the
‘lost wax’ technique in which the wax figures were first
covered with a coating of clay and allowed to dry. Then the
wax was heated and the molten wax was drained out
through a tiny hole made in the clay cover. The hollow
mould thus created was filled with molten metal which
took the original shape of the object. Once the metal cooled,
the clay cover was completely removed. In bronze we find
human as well as animal figures, the best example of the
former being the statue of a girl popularly titled ‘Dancing
Girl’. Amongst animal figures in bronze the buffalo with
its uplifted head, back and sweeping horns and the goat
are of artistic merit. Bronze casting was popular at all the
major centres of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The copper
dog and bird of Lothal and the bronze figure of a bull from
Kalibangan are in no way inferior to the human figures of
copper and bronze from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Metalcasting
appears to be a continuous tradition. The late
Harappan and Chalcolithic sites like Daimabad in
Maharashtra yielded excellent examples of metal-cast
Mother goddess, terracotta A terracotta figurine
Bronze casting techniques of the same nature are
practised even now in many parts of the country, having a
continuous tradition.sculptures. They mainly consist of human and animal
figures. It shows how the tradition of figure sculpture
continued down the ages.
Terracotta
The Indus Valley people made terracotta images also but
compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta
representations of human form are crude in the Indus
Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and
Kalibangan. The most important among the Indus figures
are those representing the mother goddess. In terracotta,
we also find a few figurines of bearded males with coiled
hair, their posture rigidly upright, legs slightly apart, and
the arms parallel to the sides of the body. The repetition of
this figure in exactly the same position would suggest that
he was a deity. A terracotta mask of a horned deity has
also been found. Toy carts with wheels, whistles, rattles,
birds and animals, gamesmen and discs were also rendered
in terracotta.
Seals
Archaeologists have discovered thousands of seals, usually
made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper,
faience and terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals,
such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison,
goat, buffalo, etc. The realistic rendering of these animals
in various moods is remarkable. The purpose of producing
seals was mainly commercial. It appears that the seals
were also used as amulets, carried on the persons of their
owners, perhaps as modern-day identity cards. The
standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square
inches, usually made from the soft river stone, steatite.
Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script which is
yet to be deciphered. Some seals have also been found in
gold and ivory. They all bear a great variety of motifs, most
often of animals including those of the bull, with or without
the hump, the elephant, tiger, goat and also
monsters. Sometimes trees or human figures
were also depicted. The most remarkable seal
is the one depicted with a figure in the centre
and animals around. This seal is generally
identified as the Pashupati Seal by some
scholars whereas some identify it as the female
deity. This seal depicts a human figure seated
cross-legged. An elephant and a tiger are
depicted to the right side of the seated figure,
while on the left a rhinoceros and a buffalo
are seen. In addition to these animals two
antelopes are shown below the seat. Seals
such as these date from between 2500 and
1500 BCE and were found in considerable
numbers in sites such as the ancient city of
Mohenjodaro in the Indus Valley. Figures and
animals are carved in intaglio on their
surfaces.
Square or rectangular copper tablets, with
an animal or a human figure on one side and
an inscription on the other, or an inscription
on both sides have also been found. The figures
and signs are carefully cut with a burin. These
copper tablets appear to have been amulets.
Unlike inscriptions on seals which vary in each
case, inscriptions on the copper tablets seem
to be associated with the animals portrayed
on them.
Pashupati seal/female deity
Unicorn seals
Pottery
A large quantity of pottery excavated from the sites, enable
us to understand the gradual evolution of various design
motifs as employed in different shapes, and styles. The
Indus Valley pottery consists chiefly of very fine wheelmade
wares, very few being hand-made. Plain pottery is
more common than painted ware. Plain pottery is generally
of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It includes
knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs. The black
painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which
geometric and animal designs are executed in glossy black
paint.
Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small
vases decorated with geometric patterns in red, black, and
green, rarely white and yellow. Incised ware is also rare
and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of
the pans, always inside and to the dishes of offering stands.
Perforated pottery includes a large hole at the bottom and
small holes all over the wall, and was probably used for
straining liquor. Pottery for household purposes is found
in as many shapes and sizes as could be conceived of for
daily practical use. Straight and angular shapes are an
exception, while graceful curves are the rule. Miniature
vessels, mostly less than half an inch in height are,
particularly, so marvellously crafted as to evoke admiration.
Beads and Ornaments
The Harappan men and women decorated themselves with
a large variety of ornaments produced from every
conceivable material ranging from precious metals and
gemstones to bone and baked clay. While necklaces, fillets,
armlets and finger-rings were commonly worn by both
Perforated pot Pottery sexes, women wore girdles, earrings and anklets. Hoards
of jewellery found at Mohenjodaro and Lothal include
necklaces of gold and semi-precious stones, copper
bracelets and beads, gold earrings and head ornaments,
faience pendants and buttons, and beads of steatite and
gemstones. All ornaments are well crafted. It may be noted
that a cemetery has been found at Farmana in Haryana
where dead bodies were buried with ornaments.
The bead industry seems to have been well developed
as evident from the factories discovered at Chanhudaro
and Lothal. Beads were made of cornelian, amethyst,
jasper, crystal, quartz, steatite, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc.
Metals like copper, bronze and gold, and shell, faience and
terracotta or burnt clay were also used for manufacturing
beads. The beads are in varying shapes—disc-shaped,
cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and segmented. Some
beads were made of two or more stones cemented together,
some of stone with gold covers. Some were decorated by
incising or painting and some had designs etched onto
them. Great technical skill has been displayed in the
manufacture of these beads.
The Harappan people also made brilliantly naturalistic
models of animals, especially monkeys and squirrels, used
as pin-heads and beads.
It is evident from the discovery of a large number of
spindles and spindle whorls in the houses of the Indus
Beadwork and jewellery items
Valley that spinning of cotton and wool was very common.
The fact that both the rich and the poor practised spinning
is indicated by finds of whorls made of the expensive faience
as also of the cheap pottery and shell. Men and women
wore two separate pieces of attire similar to the dhoti and
shawl. The shawl covered the left shoulder passing below
the right shoulder.
From archaeological finds it appears that the people of
the Indus Valley were conscious of fashion. Different
hairstyles were in vogue and wearing of a beard was popular
among all. Cinnabar was used as a cosmetic and facepaint,
lipstick and collyrium (eyeliner) were also known to
them. Many stone structural remains are also found at
Dholavira which show how the Indus Valley people used
stone in construction.
The artists and craftsmen of the Indus Valley were
extremely skilled in a variety of crafts—metal casting, stone
carving, making and painting pottery and making terracotta
images using simplified motifs of animals, plants and birds.

PREHISTORIC ROCK PAINTINGS

The distant past when there was no paper or language
or the written word, and hence no books or written
documents, is called prehistory, or, as we often say,
prehistoric times. How people lived in those times was
difficult to surmise until scholars began to discover the
places where prehistoric people lived. Excavation at these
places brought to light old tools, pottery, habitats, bones
of ancient human beings and animals, and drawings on
cave walls. By piecing together the information deduced
from these objects and the cave drawings, scholars have
constructed fairly accurate knowledge about what
happened and how people lived in prehistoric times. When
the basic needs of food, water, clothing and shelter were
fulfilled people felt the need to express themselves. Painting
and drawing were the oldest art forms practised by human
beings to express themselves, using the cave walls as their
canvas.
Why did prehistoric people draw these pictures? They
may have drawn and painted to make their homes more
colourful and beautiful or to keep a visual record of their
day-to-day life, like some of us who maintain a diary.
The prehistoric period in the early development of
human beings is commonly known as the Old Stone
Age or the Palaeolithic Age.
Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of
the world. We do not really know if Lower Palaeolithic people
ever produced any art objects. But by the Upper Palaeolithic
times we see a proliferation of artistic activities. Around
the world the walls of many caves of this time are full of
finely carved and painted pictures of animals which the
cave-dwellers hunted. The subjects of their drawings were
human figures, human activities, geometric designs and
symbols. In India the earliest paintings have been reported
from the Upper Palaeolithic times.It is interesting to know that the first discovery of rock
paintings was made in India in 1867–68 by an
archaeologist, Archibold Carlleyle, twelve years before the
discovery of Altamira in Spain. Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra
and Ghosh were the early archaeologists who discovered a
large number of sites in the Indian sub-continent.
Remnants of rock paintings have been found on the walls
of the caves situated in several districts of Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Bihar. Some
paintings have been reported from the Kumaon hills in
Uttarakhand also. The rock shelters on banks of the River
Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty kilometres on the Almora–
Barechina road, bear these prehistoric paintings.
Lakhudiyar literally means one lakh caves.The paintings
here can be divided into three categories: man, animal and
geometric patterns in white, black and red ochre. Humans
are represented in stick-like forms. A long-snouted animal,
a fox and a multiple legged lizard are the main animal motifs.
Wavy lines, rectangle-filled geometric designs, and groups
of dots can also be seen here. One of the interesting scenes
depicted here is of hand-linked dancing human figures.
There is some superimposition of paintings. The earliest are
in black; over these are red ochre paintings and the last
group comprises white paintings. From Kashmir two slabs
with engravings have been reported. The granite rocks of
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh provided suitable canvases
to the Neolithic man for his paintings. There are several such
sites but more famous among them are Kupgallu, Piklihal
and Tekkalkota. Three types of paintings have been reported
from here—paintings in white, paintings in red ochre over
a white background and paintings in red ochre. These
Hand-linked dancing figures, Lakhudiyar,
Uttarakhand paintings belong to late historical, early
historical and Neolithic periods. The subjects
depicted are bulls, elephants, sambhars,
gazelles, sheep, goats, horses, stylised
humans, tridents, but rarely, vegetal motifs.
But the richest paintings are reported from
the Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and
their Kaimurean extensions into Uttar
Pradesh. These hill ranges are full of
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic remains, and they
are also full of forests, wild plants, fruits,
streams and creeks, thus a perfect place for
Stone Age people to live. Among these the
largest and most spectacular rock-shelter is
located in the Vindhya hills at Bhimbetka in
Madhya Pradesh. Bhimbetka is located fortyfive
kilometres south of Bhopal, in an area of
ten square kilometres, having about eight
hundred rock shelters, five hundred of which
bear paintings.
The caves of Bhimbetka were discovered
in 1957–58 by eminent archaeologist V.S.
Wakankar and later on many more were
discovered. Wakankar spent several years in
surveying these inaccessible hills and jungles
to study these paintings.
The themes of paintings found here are of great variety,
ranging from mundane events of daily life in those times to
sacred and royal images. These include hunting, dancing,
music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey
collection, decoration of bodies, and other household scenes.
The rock art of Bhimbetka has been classified into
various groups on the bases of style, technique and
superimposition. The drawings and paintings can be
catagorised into seven historical periods. Period I, Upper
Palaeolithic; Period II, Mesolithic; and Period III,
Chalcolithic. After Period III there are four
successive periods. But we will confine
ourselves here only to the first three phases.
Upper Palaeolithic Period
The paintings of the Upper Palaeolithic phase
are linear representations, in green and dark
red, of huge animal figures, such as bisons,
elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides
stick-like human figures. A few are wash
paintings but mostly they are filled with
geometric patterns. The green paintings are of dancers
and the red ones of hunters.
Mesolithic Period
The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that
covers the Mesolithic paintings. During this period the
themes multiply but the paintings are smaller in size.
Hunting scenes predominate. The hunting scenes depict
people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears,
pointed sticks, arrows and bows. In some paintings these
primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably
to catch animals. The hunters are shown wearing simple
clothes and ornaments. Sometimes, men have been
adorned with elaborate head-dresses, and sometimes
painted with masks also. Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer,
antelope, leopard, panther, rhinoceros, fish, frog, lizard,
squirrel and at times birds are also depicted. The
Mesolithic artists loved to paint animals. In some pictures,
animals are chasing men. In others they are being chased
and hunted by men. Some of the animal paintings,
especially in the hunting scenes, show a fear of animals,
but many others show a feeling of tenderness and love
for them. There are also a few engravings representing
mainly animals.
Though animals were painted in a naturalistic style,
humans were depicted only in a stylistic manner. Women
are painted both in the nude and clothed. The young and
the old equally find place in these paintings. Children are
painted running, jumping and playing. Community dances
provide a common theme. There are paintings of people
gathering fruit or honey from trees, and of women grinding
and preparing food. Some of the pictures of men, women
and children seem to depict a sort of family life. In many
of the rock-shelters we find hand prints,
fist prints, and dots made by the
fingertips.
Chalcolithic Period
Period III covers the Chalcolithic period.
The paintings of this period reveal the
association, contact, and mutual
exchange of requirements of the cave
dwellers of this area with settled
agricultural communities of the Malwa
plains. Many a time Chalcolithic ceramics
and rock paintings bear common motifs,
e.g., cross-hatched squares, lattices.

Pottery and metal tools are also shown. But
the vividness and vitality of the earlier
periods disappear from these paintings.
The artists of Bhimbetka used many
colours, including various shades of white,
yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown,
green and black. But white and red were
their favourite colours. The paints were
made by grinding various rocks and
minerals. They got red from haematite
(known as geru in India). The green came
from a green variety of a stone called
chalcedony. White might have been made out of limestone.
The rock of mineral was first ground into a powder. This
may then have been mixed with water and also with some
thick or sticky substance such as animal fat or gum or
resin from trees. Brushes were made of plant fibre. What
is amazing is that these colours have survived thousands
of years of adverse weather conditions. It is believed that
the colours have remained intact because of the chemical
reaction of the oxide present on the surface of the rocks.
The artists here made their paintings on the walls and
ceilings of the rock shelters. Some of the paintings are
reported from the shelters where people lived. But some
others were made in places which do not seem to have been
living spaces at all. Perhaps these places had some religious
importance. Some of the most beautiful paintings are very
high up on rock shelters or close to the ceilings of rockshelters.
One may wonder why early human beings chose
to paint on a rock in such an uncomfortable position. The
paintings made at these places were perhaps for people to
be able to notice them from a distance.
The paintings, though from the remote past, do not lack
pictorial quality. Despite various limitations such as acute
working conditions, inadequate tools, materials, etc., there
is a charm of simple rendering of scenes of the
environment in which the artists lived. The men shown in
them appear adventurous and rejoicing in their lives. The
animals are shown more youthful and majestic than
perhaps they actually were. The primitive artists seem to
possess an intrinsic passion for storytelling. These pictures
depict, in a dramatic way, both men and animals engaged
in the struggle for survival. In one of the scenes, a group
of people have been shown hunting a bison. In the process,
some injured men are depicted lying scattered on the
ground. In another scene, an animal is shown in the agony
of death and the men are depicted dancing.

These kinds of paintings might have given man a sense of power over
the animals he would meet in the open.
This practice is common among primitive people of
today also. They engrave or paint on rocks as part of
the rituals they perform at birth, at death, at coming
of age and at the time of marriage. They dance,
masked, during hunting rites to help them kill
animals difficult to find or kill.
The paintings of individual animals show the mastery
of skill of the primitive artist in drawing these forms. Both,
proportion and tonal effect, have been realistically
maintained in them.
It is interesting to note that at many rock-art sites
often a new painting is painted on top of an older painting.
At Bhimbetka, in some places, there are as many as 20
layers of paintings, one on top of another. Why did the
artists paint in the same place again and again? Maybe,
this was because the artist did not like his creation and
painted another painting on the previous one, or some of
the paintings and places were considered sacred or special
or this was because the area may have been used by
different generations of people at different times.
These prehistoric paintings help us to understand about
early human beings, their lifestyle, their food habits, their
daily activities and, above all, they help us understand
their mind—the way they thought. Prehistoric period
remains are a great witness to the evolution of human
civilisation, through the numerous rock weapons, tools,
ceramics and bones. More than anything else, the rock
paintings are the greatest wealth the primitive human
beings of this period left behind.